Plumbing is derived from the Latin word plumbum, which roughly translates into the word lead. The name was believed to have been coined due to the fact that early pipes used for plumbing purposes were almost always lead based. A plumber is someone who works with pipes and fixtures related to various aspects of the plumbing trade. The trade itself covers most items related to water and waste water, both residential and commercial. This may include work on anything from kitchen faucets to toilets to septic systems. It may also entail work with hot water heaters, pools, and sprinkler systems.

The word plumbing can also be used to describe the various fixtures and pipes installed for the purposes of bringing clean water into the house and, in turn, removing waste water from the house. The term is reserved, however, for classifying the pipes and fixtures in a single home or building and would therefore not include any attached sewage or water lines that are designed to serve multiple locations.

Plumbing History – Ancient Times

In order to fully understand the history of plumbing as we know it today, one must trace the origins back to Ancient times.

Babylon

In the time period between 6,000 B.C. and 3,000 B.C., Western civilization as we know it was being formed in the lands of Babylon. It was a lush land, full of rich crops and several practices that would go on to create the basis for modern plumbing.

Babylonians stored their personal water supplies in large clay jars or pots, built by the locals and filled from the nearby river. Bathrooms consisted of holes cut into the floor that emptied into local cesspools and the act of bathing was often done in the rivers and canals for the lower class. Upper class households, on the other hand, often had private bath areas where servants would pour water over their masters’ heads in the first known recorded incident of showering. These wealthy homes also developed seats that were placed over the cesspool access to allow for a greater comfort level, establishing the foundation for the creation of toilets as we know them today.

Drains also originated during this period and were often comprised on clay pots which had either had their bottom portion removed, or had small holes punched into their bottoms. They were, in turn, placed over various holes in the floor that either led directly to the river, or emptied out into the streets.

Early plumbers during this period worked most often with clay and straw that had been combined to form a malleable material that would dry to become fairly durable. Eventually, items such as copper, lead, and bronze were available for use as well. A thick liquid that dried into a solid, commonly known as antimony, was used to patch holes in early plumbing fixtures or canal walls, as needed.

Crete

The next civilization to make significant contributions to modern plumbing was Crete. Between 3,000 B.C. and 1,500 B.C., significant advances were made in the areas of bathing and sewage handling. The Minoan capital of Knossos was home to many of these innovations.

Crete is also believed to be home to one of the first formal bathtubs. Made from clay and then painted, the tub resided in the queen’s bathroom and was surrounded by statues and large wall reliefs and frescoes. While the size and shape of the tub closely resembles modern fixtures, there was no drainage capacity and it had to be filled and emptied by hand. The waste water was emptied into an opening in the bathroom floor which did connect directly to the main waste lines.

Crete was also home to one of the first known ‘flushing’ toilets. Known as water closets at the time, they relied on stores of rain water or river water that were collected and used to force waste water down into the sewers, replacing the discarded water with a fresher supply. The earthquake that hit in 1,400 B.C. damaged or destroyed many of these examples of ancient plumbing techniques, as the city of Knossos was leveled.

Egypt

It really is no surprise that early Egypt contributed a great deal to the history and modernization of plumbing. While Crete was becoming renowned for their use of bath tubs and complex sewage systems, Egypt was concentrating on advancing drain and pipe technology, along with attempting to finally harness the power of the Nile.

Egyptians were some of the first to rely on deep wells to access clean water supplies deep underground. Often times, these wells were dug through solid rock, quite an accomplishment given the more primitive tools of the time. The Well of Joseph is one of the most remarkable examples of this technique.

Egypt was also one of the first civilizations to begin incorporating metals, such as copper, lead, brass, and bronze, into their plumbing as more than just accent materials. Examples of both lead and bronze drains have been found during numerous archaeological digs. Copper and brass pipes were also found in many areas, replacing the traditional clay pipes being used in the rest of the world at the time.

Elsewhere

Greece was home to some beautiful tiled bathrooms, as well as some of the first self draining bathtubs. These tubs were often very ornate and ceremonial in nature, typically made from fine stone such as marble or granite. While baths and showers were typically done with room temperature or slightly cooled water in other parts of the world, the Greeks relied heavily on hot and cold water for bathing purposes. Hot baths, however, were often reserved for the females and the upper class males.

Jerusalem was known for their innovation with sewer systems. Since cleanliness was such a strong part of their religious beliefs, it was very important to always have sources of clean water to bathe and wash in. In order to accomplish this task, they built separate plumbing systems and aqueducts to bring clean water in and then dispose of wastewater afterwards. Jerusalem was also the first to explore the concept of reclaimed water, any water that was disposed of would have its solid waste separated from its liquid waste. The solid waste was used as a fertilizer on the crops, and the liquid was, in turn, used to water the harvest.

Pompeii went down in history for the many examples of lead bathroom fixtures, such as ornate bathtubs and sinks. The composition of the items, thankfully, allowed them to survive the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

Plumbing History – Developments In Toilet Design

While it seemed that bathtubs, sinks, and drains had all been fairly well developed, there was still one basic plumbing fixture that still needed a lot of work before it was up to par with modern standards. A true flushing toilet was found in Crete during an archaeological dig. The ruins under which it was piled, however, delayed its discovery for many years, leaving the technology and design buried along with it. For the rest of the world, it was back to square one. The development of the toilet as we know it today is definitely an interesting timeline. In fact, it took until the 19th century for the next true flushing toilet to be completed.

Sir John Harrington designed the plans for a flushing toilet in the late 1500s. The unit relied on running water to flush away debris and a valve at the base of the toilet to control the flushing itself. Since running water was extremely limited at the time though, his invention remained fairly stagnant. In 1775, Alexander Cumming developed the S shaped toilet base that many are familiar with today. This trap eliminated the need for a valve and used water levels to determine when water flow should be stopped or started. Two years later, Samuel Prosser created the plunger component for the toilet, allowing waste to be disposed of and sealed off to prevent the odor from re-entering the room. The use of valves returned in 1778 when Joseph Bramah created the first hinged valve and float valve to further improve toilet operation.

JG Jennings went down in history as the first to introduce the toilet to the public on a large scale. After making improvements of his own, he placed a number of his flushing toilets on display at the Great Exhibition of 1851. The units were installed in the Crystal Palace and allowed attendees to try them for a nominal fee. Nearly 900,000 participants got the chance to use Jennings’ design at that event.
In the 1880s, the siphoning system was invented, designed to empty the toilet’s cistern for more effective flushing. These modifications were made by Thomas Crapper. While it is a common misbelief that Crapper invented the toilet himself, as you can see from the names and accomplishments that came before him, he merely helped to improve on the basic design.

Plumbing History – Developments In Shower Design

While there were many examples of showers during ancient times, they were all very similar in the fact that they were composed of small quarters the bather would stand in while a slave or servant proceeded to pour large buckets or jars of water over their head. Needless to say, that is far from the concept of a shower as we know it today.

One of the earliest showers, as well as one of the most elaborate, was said to be located within a wealthy English manor house built in the early 1800s. Known today as the English Regency Shower, this piece was not only beautiful and ornate in its design, it was also massive in its scale. Measuring in at just over 12 feet high, the unit was unlike anything thing else seen or built during this time period.

The English Regency Shower was made from various metals which were then painted by hand in order to appear as bamboo from a distance. The base of the shower was a large bowl with a built in drain that was then connected to the upper water tank with the metal poles, measuring nearly 10 feet on their own. The unit was created with an integrated pump system that took the water as it drained down the basin and pushed it back to the upper holding tank. The tank would then disperse the water, creating a recycling effect. While it was not the most hygienic means of bathing, it apparently served its purpose well enough.

The bather was given privacy by means of a curtain that was hung on poles surrounding the upper water tank, the forerunner to the modern shower curtain as we know it today. The English Regency Shower was also the unit behind the invention of one of the first shower caps. Unlike modern shower cap designs, this version was a tall cone shaped metal hat the bather would wear to keep his or her hair dry. While bathing practices had become more frequent during this time period, washing the hair was often done with the use of scented oils and herbs, not soap and water.

The Golden Age of Plumbing

The tail end of the 19th century, particularly between 1880 and 1899, has long been considered the dawn of the golden age of plumbing. This was not only one of the first times that plumbing was recognized as its own trade, it was also the first time that plumbers began to be considered skilled tradesmen. In fact, it is only in the last hundred years or so that the plumbing industry has flourished, leading to the creation of multiple trade associations and plumbers’ unions. The National Association of Master Plumbers was founded in 1183 and both the Mechanical Contractors of America and United Associated Plumbers Union were established in 1889.

Some say it was the mastery of the toilet design that led to this prosperous boom that seems to still be going strong. Once the sanitation and odor issues that had long plagued toilet design were eliminated, the concept of indoor plumbing spread faster than anyone could have ever imagined. Also, once manufacturers had perfected their basic designs as best they could for the times, greater emphasis was once again placed on the visual aspects of the plumbing fixtures, as these were now just as important to people as the functional aspects of the devices. Sinks, tubs, and toilets gradually became standard fixtures in nearly every home, followed closely behind by true showers. Coincidentally, the overall public health seemed to improve greatly as well during these times. Many experts often contribute this more to the improvements made in sanitation and hygiene practices that were being made, as opposed to advances being made in the medical sciences.

Modern Plumbing

Today’s plumbers are still considered highly skilled tradesman and still have a wealth of private and public associations and unions which cater to their needs. Becoming a licensed plumber not only requires several years of experience, it can also include various levels of schooling and certifications, as well as the need to successfully pass a series of detailed exams on various aspects of the plumbing industry. Their jobs also entail much more than just the basic bathroom fixtures, such as baths and toilets. Plumbers are now responsible for more modern designs, such as water heaters, swimming pools, residential septic systems, and irrigation systems.

Plumbers can choose to do general contracting work, becoming certified to handle any general plumbing repair or installation needs within the home, or they can opt for a more specialized career in a specific niche market within the industry itself. They can also choose to focus on strictly residential plumbing tasks, or choose to handle larger scale commercial and industrial applications.

Modern Plumbing Tools

In order to perform their job correctly, a plumber must be well equipped with the proper tools. While it is common to have a mini-tool kit specific to plumbing needs around the house, often equipped with a wrench or two, some plumbing tape, and a hand full of washers, the professional plumber’s arsenal of tools is much more extensive.

Wrenches

Plumbing wrenches come in two basic designs, adjustable wrenches and fixed wrenches. As their names imply, fixed wrenches are designed to fit specific sizes of pipes, valves, bolts, etc.

Adjustable wrenches, on the other hand, can be made to fit a number of various sized items, with each wrench covering a small to moderate range on the overall sizing scale. The most common wrench size for residential applications has a 12” handle.

Stillson wrenches are one of the most common types of wrenches used for rounded surfaces, primarily plumbing pipes. Stillson wrenches tend to be fairly affordable and rely on adjustable steel jaws set into a housing to grip and move the piping. Like general wrenches, Stillson wrenches are commonly found in the 12” variety, however, 18” Stillson wrenches are also quite common.

Pipe wrenches are another type of wrench used for rounded surfaces. Unlike Stillson wrenches, pipe wrenches tend to be slightly more costly, particularly since they are subject to much less potential distortion. They consist of a section of heavy chain which is attached to a steel handle. The chain is placed around the pipe or rounded item that needs to be adjusted and then tightened in place. The notches on the handle, also known as teeth, help to grip the pipe securely, while the pipe is held firm by pressure of the chain. A pipe wrench can also be used on other items, including angled and irregularly shaped pipes. This versatility stems from the fact that the chain can be made to fit and conform to a variety of shapes other than just round pipes.

While Stillson wrenches and pipe wrenches are the two most common types used for plumbing repairs and installations, there are several other varieties of wrenches that a skilled plumber will rely on in his day to day activities.

When dealing with softer pipe materials, such as plastic, aluminum, or lead, a strap wrench is recommended. A strap wrench works on the same basic principle of the pipe wrench but uses a leather or fabric strap to wrap around the item instead of a chain. Using fabric eliminates the need for the teeth and chain which can cause extensive damage when used on softer materials.

End wrenches are used in smaller areas or where pipes have been mounted in close quarters to one another. Their slim design helps them to better fit into confined spaces and between close set pipes.

Nipple wrenches, also known as extractors, are also heavily relied on in smaller work areas. They rely on hex fittings for ease of use.

The hex setting itself is, of course, most commonly found on hex wrenches. The basic design of a hex wrench features an end that is designed to fit a variety of square or multi-sided objects. The hex wrench fits over the item needing to be tightened or loosened, wrapping around it firmly to ensure a proper grip. Because of their snug fit and soft surfaces, hex wrenches are also preferred for more decorative finishes, such as chrome, as they are less likely to scratch the surface as many standard wrenches may.

Seat wrenches also feature hex settings and are used specifically for a variety of faucet seating shapes and sizes.

With regards to bath and shower repairs and installations, packing nut socket wrenches are a staple in any plumber’s tool kit. These wrenches are typically found in large sets and feature double ended hex settings designed to fit the full range of standard tub and shower faucet stems. The hex settings are crucial as almost all tub and shower faucet stems are made from pliable brass which is too easily damaged by standard wrenches. A damaged faucet stem is also nearly impossible to replace without damaging or taking apart the wall that the faucet stem is mounted into.

Pliers

Another top category of plumbing tools is pliers. Locking pliers, slip joint pliers, and expanding jaw pliers are some of the most common types in use.

Locking pliers are often included in the wrench category as their method of operation is very similar. They are fully adjustable and, once in the right position, can be locked down with a firm grip on the pliers handle.

Slip joint pliers and expanding jaw pliers, on the hand, are slightly more manual in their operation.

While slip joint pliers are used to grip down on pipes and fittings, expanding jaw pliers are placed into an opening, such as a sink drain, and expanded outwards to loosen the fitting from within.

Other Pipe Tools

When working with pipes, it is often essential to have a tool to hold the pipe firmly in place. A pipe vise does just that.

Yoke vises are designed for pipes ranging from 1/8” in size up to 6” in size and uses two V-shaped grips, one on the top of the pipe and the other on the bottom, to hold the pipe in place.

A chain vise, on the other hand, is smaller in overall size but can hold pipes between 1/8” and 8” in size. Chain vises rely on the same V-shaped jaw on the bottom portion of the tool, but use a chain laid across the top of the jaw to hold the pipe firmly in place.

Pipe cutters are another essential tool in the plumber’s tool kit. Pipe and tube cutters are not only more efficient than standard saws, they also provide a much more uniform cut. They are typically designed to cut pipes ranging in size from 1/8” to 6” in diameter and use a cutting wheel guided by rollers to make quick and accurate cuts. Tube cutters are used specifically for softer and thinner metals and plastic pipes, while pipe cutters are designed for harder and thicker metals.

Once the pipe has been cut, the edges are cleaned with a reamer. While standard files are generally used to smoother the semi-rough outer edges of a pipe that has been recently cut, a reamer is designed to smooth the inner edges of the pipe. Because of their cone shaped design, reamers can also be used to widen holes in flat items to help ensure the proper fit of various pipes and fixtures. The deeper into the hole the reamer is pushed, the wider the opening will end up being. Reamers can be found in both manual and electric designs.

The newly cut and sanded pipe must sometimes need to be threaded as well. Threading is the slightly angled series of lines carved into the outer edge of the pipe or cut into the inner edge. They are designed to help the pipe fit snugly with other components, making it much easier to ensure a water tight seal. The tool used to create the threading on the pipes is naturally called a threader. The pipe is held in place by a vise while the threader work to carve or cut the correct series of lines into or onto the pipe. Like reamers, threaders come in both manual and electric designs.

For both commercial and residential applications, snakes, augers, and plungers are also must have plumbing tools. A plumbing snake is a long piece of flexible coiled wire that can be used to help unclog blocked drains. One end of the snake is forced into the drain and pushed through until it reaches, and breaks through, the material that is causing the blockage. Plumbing snakes can reach upwards of hundreds of feet, designed for both residential and commercial plumbing lines. Augers, on the other hand, are smaller versions of plumbing snakes that are enclosed in a plastic casing for more sanitary use. Since they are smaller in their overall design, they are designed more for sinks and other plumbing fixtures where the blockage tends to be closer to the drain itself.

Common Plumbing Fittings

One of the most crucial aspects of plumbing involves securing various pipes and components together in a way that prevents leakage. Most pipes must be secured to one another with one of the many types of plumbing fittings available. Each fitting is designed to work for a specific connection and come in a variety of sizes to fit the standard pipe sizes on the market.

One of the most popular types of plumbing fittings is the elbow fitting. As the name implies, an elbow fitting is designed to connect two pipes at either a 45° or 90° angle. The greater the bend in the elbow fitting, the sharper the angle will be. The two ends of the elbow fitting can also be made to accommodate different sizes of pipe, allowing a reduction or increase in pipe size through the connection itself.

The tee fitting is also a common sight. This fitting has three openings and is designed primarily to combine two water flows into one or separate a single water flow into two directions. Some tee fittings also have a built in diverter which allows the water flow to be channeled to one side or the other while in use. The same diverter control can also be used to regulate the force of the flow being directed towards the various outputs or inputs.

Caps and plugs are also common plumbing fittings. The cap is designed to fit over the end of a pipe, usually through a threading design, while the plug is designed to fit into the pipe. Both are used to seal off the end of a pipe.

Types Of Plumbing Pipes

Aside from the various tools used by modern day plumbers, there are also a number of materials that can be used to make various plumbing pipes from. While some materials are designed for specific applications, others become a matter of personal preference. The three most common materials used to make metal plumbing pipes are copper, stainless steel, and galvanized steel. PVC, CVPC, and PEX, on the other hand, are the three most common choices for plastic plumbing pipes.

Copper

At one point, copper was one of the most commonly used materials for plumbing pipes and fittings. Copper is not only easy to work with, it is also very lightweight and can withstand frequent use. Heavily relied on in warmer climates, copper pipes can handle extremely high temperatures and are fairly rust or corrosion resistant. Copper pies are not, however, recommended for areas prone to extremely low temperatures as they are susceptible to splitting in freezing temperatures. Copper piping also requires soldering, making it more labor intensive than some other types of piping. Cutting copper piping requires a high level of accuracy. Because of the high demand for copper over the years, it has also increased in value, making it a great source of income for scrap metal, but also a likely target for theft from construction sites.

Stainless Steel

Stainless steel may not have many suitable plumbing applications, but it does serve its primary one very well. Since stainless steel is more expensive than copper, as well as being much more difficult to work with, it is not commonly found in either residential or commercial plumbing applications. The primary benefit of stainless steel piping, however, is its high level of resistance to corrosion, particularly when it comes to salt water. This characteristic makes it ideal for maritime applications where constant exposure to salt water is a factor.

Galvanized Steel

Before copper became the metal of choice for residential piping in the early 1960′s, galvanized steel was the main material used to make pipes from. Galvanized steel pipes were particularly preferred due to their ability to resist rust, making them ideal for underground applications where low maintenance was a priority. Galvanized steel piping’s durability was also important when it came to the frequent use of the materials to handle liquid and solid waste removal from homes. While the pipes were extremely rust resistant, they did tend to be prone to other types of corrosion which often lead to pipe blockages. They also frequently had issues with leakage, eventually giving way to copper for the preferred plumbing material for pipe making.

PVC

With regards to plastic pipes, polyvinyl chloride, more commonly known as PVC, has long been the material of choice for plumbing line applications. PVC is ideal for moderate climates and can be used in high pressure scenarios. The main problems with PVC lie in the fact that it is prone to freezing, like copper, while also being unable to handle extremely high temperatures, as it can bend out of shape fairly easily when excess water temperatures are reached. In most setups, the PVC piping will be used for cold water applications while a more heat tolerant material, such as copper, will be used for carrying hot water.

CPVC

Chlorine polyvinyl chloride, also known as CPVC, is a PVC alternative that has a slightly higher tolerance for extreme temperatures, both hot and cold. Its formulation increases the temperature of hot water it can accommodate without warping, while also decreasing the temperature of cold water it can be used for without the likelihood of freezing and splitting. The primary downside to CPVC is that it cannot be run underground and must be used only for above ground plumbing applications.

PEX

In order to take advantage of the cost effectiveness of PVC, while also addressing the main problems its usage created, a variation on polyethylene pipe, commonly referred to as PEX, was introduced on the plumbing market in the 1920s. PEX pipes offer the same hot and cold handling ability as copper at a fraction of the cost. Its flexible nature eliminates the need for multiple joints, reducing the chances of leaking at various connection points. The primary downside to PEX piping is the fact that it is much less attractive than copper, often found in either blue or red styles, and therefore not intended for pipes in open areas where aesthetic appeal is a factor.

Cast Iron

One material no longer in active use today is cast iron. While cast iron plumbing pipes and fittings were extremely durable, their overall weight made them somewhat difficult to work with. When cast iron plumbing lines and fittings are found in older homes, they are typically replaced with PVC. This is due largely to the fact that PVC sections can be fitted into cast iron plumbing lines rather easily when certain repairs to individual sections are needed.

Plumbing Connection Types

Along with various fittings and types of pipe used in the plumbing industry, the types of connections used to join various components together also play a key role. Overall, there are three basic types of connections used to secure various plumbing fixtures, pipes, and fittings together. There are also three additional components used in conjunction with the connections to hold the pipes in place.

Threading

Threading is one of the simplest connection types used in plumbing. The threading on a pipe can be on either the outside of the pipe or the inside and consists of a number of lines either carved onto or etched into the pipe that are designed to twist onto similarly threaded pipes to create a seal. While threaded pipes are not always completely watertight, items such as plumber’s tape and caulk can often provide the extra sealant needed to prevent leaks.

Coupling

Coupling is another method used to connect various pipes in plumbing lines. Coupling connections basically slide over each end of a pipe, joining the two pipes together within the coupling device itself. Coupling connections can be used to fit two identical sized pipes together. They can also be found in reducing designs that are intended to connect two different size pipes together. Some styles require additional soldering or welding to hold them firmly in place, while other designs rely on compression to create a firm seal. Compression couplings basically use force placed on each pipe or fixture the coupling is connected to in order to eliminate any potential leaks.

Union

Union connections are very similar in overall design to couplings but are, instead, designed to have a somewhat quick release capability that allows the pipes they are connecting to be easily separated from one another when needed. Unlike traditional couplings, unions do not require the need for additional soldering or welding to hold their pipes in place.

Additional Components

Compression, as mentioned earlier, is a method by which force is used to securely hold connections between pipes in place.

Solvent Welding

Solvent welding is another form, relying on chemical compositions that, when placed in contact with the various pipes and fittings, begin to slowly dissolve the surface they are in contact with. When two pieces of material that have both had solvent applied to them come into contact with one another, the chemicals helps them to essentially chemically weld themselves together, creating a water tight seal at the connection point.

Soldering

Soldering is an alternative method used to reinforce plumbing connections. In place of a chemical material, soft metals are used to hold connections in place. The metal is often wrapped in a coil and placed over the area needing the connection in small portions. A high heat torch is then used to essentially heat the metal to its melting point, allowing it to create a seal at the connection points where it has melted.